Ketorolac

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Ketorolac

  • Molecular FormulaC15H13NO3
  • Average mass255.269 Da
1H-Pyrrolizine-1-carboxylic acid, 5-benzoyl-2,3-dihydro-
413572 [Beilstein]
5-(Phenylcarbonyl)-2,3-dihydro-1H-pyrrolizine-1-carboxylic acid
5-Benzoyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-pyrrolizine-1-carboxylic acid
5-Benzoyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-pyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrrole-1-carboxylic acid
74103-06-3 [RN]
 Ketorolac
CAS Registry Number: 74103-06-3
CAS Name: 5-Benzoyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-pyrrolizine-1-carboxylic acid
Additional Names: 5-benzoyl-1,2-dihydro-3H-pyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrrole-1-carboxylic acid
Manufacturers’ Codes: RS-37619
Molecular Formula: C15H13NO3
Molecular Weight: 255.27
Percent Composition: C 70.58%, H 5.13%, N 5.49%, O 18.80%
Literature References: Prostaglandin biosynthesis inhibitor. Prepn and separation of isomers: BE 856681; J. M. Muchowski, A. F. Kluge, US 4089969 (both 1978 to Syntex). Alternate processes: J. M. Muchowski, R. Greenhouse, US 4347186 (1982 to Syntex); F. Franco et al., J. Org. Chem. 47, 1682 (1982); J. B. Doherty, US 4496741 (1985 to Merck & Co.). Absolute configuration: A. Guzman et al., J. Med. Chem. 29, 589 (1986). Structure-activity relationships: J. M. Muchowski et al., ibid. 28, 1037 (1985). Pharmacology and analgesic, anti-inflammatory profile of ketorolac and its tromethamine salt: W. H. Rooks et al., Agents Actions12, 684 (1982); eidem, Drugs Exp. Clin. Res. 11, 479 (1985). Clinical comparison with acetaminophen in post-operative pain: H. J. McQuay et al., Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 39, 89 (1986).
Properties: Crystals from ethyl acetate + ether, mp 160-161°. uv max in methanol: 245, 312 nm (e 7080, 17400). pKa 3.49 ±0.02. LD50 orally in mice: ~200 mg/kg (Rooks).
Melting point: mp 160-161°
pKa: pKa 3.49 ±0.02
Absorption maximum: uv max in methanol: 245, 312 nm (e 7080, 17400)
Toxicity data: LD50 orally in mice: ~200 mg/kg (Rooks)
Derivative Type: (±)-Form tromethamine salt
CAS Registry Number: 74103-07-4
Trademarks: Acular (Allergan); Dolac (Syntex); Lixidol (Farmitalia); Tarasyn (Syntex); Toradol (Syntex); Toratex (Syntex)
Molecular Formula: C19H24N2O6
Molecular Weight: 376.40
Percent Composition: C 60.63%, H 6.43%, N 7.44%, O 25.50%
Derivative Type: (+)-Form
Properties: Crystals from hexane + ethyl acetate, mp 174° (Guzman); also reported as mp 154-156° (Muchowski, Kluge). [a]D+173° (c = 1 in methanol).
Melting point: mp 174° (Guzman); mp 154-156° (Muchowski, Kluge)
Optical Rotation: [a]D +173° (c = 1 in methanol)
Derivative Type: (-)-Form
Properties: Crystals from hexane + ethyl acetate, mp 169-170° (Guzman); also reported as mp 153-155° (Muchowski, Kluge). [a]D-176° (c = 1 in methanol).
Melting point: mp 169-170° (Guzman); mp 153-155° (Muchowski, Kluge)
Optical Rotation: [a]D -176° (c = 1 in methanol)
Therap-Cat: Analgesic; anti-inflammatory.
Keywords: Analgesic (Non-Narcotic); Anti-inflammatory (Nonsteroidal); Arylcarboxylic Acids.

Ketorolac, sold under the brand name Toradol among others, is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to treat pain.[1]Specifically it is recommended for moderate to severe pain.[2] Recommended duration of treatment is less than six days.[1] It is used by mouth, by injection into a vein or muscle, and as eye drops.[1][2] Effects begin within an hour and last for up to eight hours.[1]

Common side effects include sleepiness, dizziness, abdominal pain, swelling, and nausea.[1] Serious side effects may include stomach bleedingkidney failureheart attacksbronchospasmheart failure, and anaphylaxis.[1] Use is not recommended during the last part of pregnancy or during breastfeeding.[1] Ketorolac works by blocking cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX1 and COX2) thereby decreasing prostaglandins.[1][3]

Ketorolac was patented in 1976 and approved for medical use in 1989.[4][1] It is avaliable as a generic medication.[2] In the United Kingdom it costs the NHS less than a £ per injectable dose as of 2019.[2] In the United States the wholesale cost of this amount is about 1.50 USD.[5] In 2016 it was the 296th most prescribed medication in the United States with more than a million prescriptions.[6]

Medical uses

Ketorolac is used for short-term management of moderate to severe pain.[7]It is usually not prescribed for longer than five days.[8][9][10][11] Ketorolac is effective when administered with paracetamol to control pain in neonates because it does not depress respiration as do opioids.[12] Ketorolac is also an adjuvant to opioid medications and improves pain relief. It is also used to treat dysmenorrhea.[11] Ketorolac is used to treat idiopathic pericarditis, where it reduces inflammation.[13]

Ketorolac is used for short-term pain control not lasting longer than five days, and can be administered orally, by intramuscular injection, intravenously, and by nasal spray.[8] Ketorolac is initially administered by intramuscular injection or intravenously.[7] Oral therapy is only used as a continuation from the intramuscular or intravenous starting point.[8][12]

Ketorolac is used during eye surgery help with pain.[14] Ketorolac is effective in treating ocular itching.[15] The ketorolac ophthalmic formulation is associated with a decreased development of macular edema after cataract surgery and is more effective alone rather than as an opioid/ketorolac combination treatment.[16][17] Ketorolac has also been used to manage pain from corneal abrasions.[18]

During treatment with ketorolac, clinicians monitor for the manifestation of adverse effects and side effects. Lab tests, such as liver function tests, bleeding time, BUNserum creatinine and electrolyte levels are often used and help to identify potential complications.[8][9]

Contraindications

Ketorolac is contraindicated in those with hypersensitivity, allergies to the medication, cross-sensitivity to other NSAIDs, prior to surgery, history of peptic ulcer disease, gastrointestinal bleeding, alcohol intolerance, renal impairment, cerebrovascular bleeding, nasal polypsangioedema, and asthma.[8][9] Recommendations exist for cautious use of ketorolac in those who have experienced cardiovascular disease, myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failurecoagulation disorders, renal impairment, and hepatic impairment.[8][9]

Adverse effects

Though uncommon, potentially fatal adverse effects are strokemyocardial infarctionGI bleedingStevens-Johnson Syndrometoxic epidermal necrolysis and anaphylaxis. A less serious and more common (>10%) side effect is drowsiness. Infrequent (<1%) side effects are paresthesia, prolonged bleeding timeinjection site pain, purpurasweatingabnormal thinking, increased production of tearsedemapallordry mouthabnormal tasteurinary frequencyincreased liver enzymesitching and others. Ketorolac can cause premature constriction of the ductus arteriosis in an infant during the third trimester of pregnancy.[8][9] Platelet function is decreased related to the use of ketorolac.[19]

The practice of restricting treatment with ketorolac is due to its potential to cause kidney damage.[20]

Interactions

Ketorolac can interact with other medications. Probenecid can increase the probability of having an adverse reaction or experiencing a side effect when taken with ketorolac. Pentoxifylline can increase the risk of bleeding. When aspirin is taken at the same time as ketorolac, the effectiveness is decreased. Problematic GI effects are additive and become more likely if potassium supplements, aspirin, other NSAIDS, corticosteroids, or alcohol is taken at the same time. The effectiveness of antihypertensives and diuretics can be lowered. The use of ketorolac can increase serum lithium levels to the point of toxicity. Toxicity to methotrexate is more likely if ketorolac is taken at the same time. The risk of bleeding increases with the concurrent medications clopidogrelcefoperazonevalproic acidcefotetaneptifibatidetirofiban, and copidine. Anticoagulants and thrombolytic medications also increase the likelihood of bleeding. Medications used to treat cancer can interact with ketorolac along with radiation therapy. The risk of toxicity to the kidneys increases when ketorolac is taken with cyclosporine.[8][9]

Interactions with ketorolac exist with some herbal supplements. The use of Panax ginsengclovegingerarnicafeverfewdong quaichamomile, and Ginkgo biloba increases the risk of bleeding.[8][9]

Mechanism of action

The primary mechanism of action responsible for ketorolac’s anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and analgesic effects is the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis by competitive blocking of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX). Ketorolac is a non-selective COX inhibitor.[21] Ketorolac has been assessed to be a relatively higher risk NSAID when compared to aceclofenac, celecoxib, and ibuprofen.[13] It is considered a first-generation NSAID.[19]

History

In the US, ketorolac was the only widely available intravenous NSAID for many years; an IV form of paracetemol, which is not an NSAID, became available in Europe in 2009 and then in the US.[12]

The Syntex company, of Palo Alto, California developed the ophthalmic solution Acular around 2006.[citation needed]

In 2007, there were concerns about the high incidence of reported side effects. This led to restriction in its dosage and maximum duration of use. In the UK, treatment was initiated only in a hospital, although this was not designed to exclude its use in prehospital care and mountain rescue settings.[7] Dosing guidelines were published at that time.[22]

Concerns over the high incidence of reported side effects with ketorolac trometamol led to its withdrawal (apart from the ophthalmic formulation) in several countries, while in others its permitted dosage and maximum duration of treatment have been reduced. From 1990 to 1993, 97 reactions with a fatal outcome were reported worldwide.[23]

The eye-drop formulation was approved by the FDA in 1992.[24] An intranasal formulation was approved by the FDA in 2010[25] for short-term management of moderate to moderately severe pain requiring analgesia at the opioid level.

Synthesis

DOI: 10.1021/jo00348a014

Image result for Ketorolac SYNTHESIS

1H-Pyrrolizine-1-carboxylic acid, 2,3-dihydro-5-benzoyl-, (+-)-, could be produced through many synthetic methods.

Following is one of the reaction routes:

Synthesis of Ketorolac

2-Methylthiopyrrole (I) is benzoylated with N,N-dimethylbenzamide (II) to produce 5-benzoyl-2-methylthiopyrrole (III) in the presence of POCl3 in refluxing CH2Cl2, and the yielding product is condensed with spiro[2.5]-5,7-dioxa-6,6-dimethyloctane-4,8-dione (IV) in the presence of NaH in DMF giving compound (V). The oxidation of (V) with m-chloroperbenzoic acid in CH2Cl2affords the sulfone (VI), which is submitted to methanolysis with methanol and HCl giving 1-(3,3-dimethoxycarbonylpropyl)-2-methanesulfonyl-5-benzoylpyrrole (VII). The cyclization of (VII) with NaH in DMF yields dimethyl 5-benzoyl-1,2-dihydro-3H-pyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrrole-1,1-dicarboxylate (VIII), which is finally hydrolyzed and decarboxylated with KOH in refluxing methanol.Compound (III) can be oxidized with m-chloroperbenzoic acid as before giving 2-methanesulfonyl-5-benzoylpyrrole (IX), which is then condensed with spiro compound (IV) as before to afford compound (VI), already obtained.

SYN

DE 2731678; ES 460706; ES 470214; FR 2358406; FR 2375234; GB 1554075

The condensation of dimethylacetone-1,3-dicarboxylate (X) with ethanolamine (XI) yields methyl 3-(methoxycarbonylmethyl)-3-(2-hydroxyethylamino)acrylate (XII), which is cyclized with bromoacetaldehyde diethylacetal (XIII) affording methyl 1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-3-methoxycarbonylpyrrol-2-acetate (XIV). Acylation of (XIV) with methanesulfonyl chloride (XV) and triethylamine in CH2Cl2 yields the corresponding mesylate (XVI), which by treatment with methyl iodide in refluxing acetonitrile is converted into methyl 1-(2-iodoethyl)-3-methoxycarbonylpyrrole-2-acetate (XVII). The cyclization of (XVII) with NaH in DMF yields dimethyl 1,2-dihydro-3H-pyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrrole-1,7-dicarboxylate (XVIII), which is hydrolyzed with KOH in refluxing methanol – water to the corresponding diacid (XIX). Partial esterification of (XIX) with isopropanol and HCl gives isopropyl 1,2-dihydro-3H-7-carboxypyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrrole-1-carboxylate (XX), which is decarboxylated by heating at 270 C affording isopropyl 1,2-dihydro-3H-pyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrrole-1-carboxylate (XXI). Benzoylation of (XXI) with N,N-dimethylbenzamide (XXII) and POCl3 in refluxing CH2Cl2 yields isopropyl 5-benzoyl-1,2-dihydro-3H-pyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrrole-1-carboxylate (XXIII), which is finally hydrolyzed with K2CO3 or NaOH in methanol – water.

 

SYN2

The benzoylation of 2-methylthiopyrrole (I) with N,N-dimethylbenzamide (II) by means of POCl3 in refluxing CH2Cl2 gives 5-benzoyl-2-methylthiopyrrole (III), which is condensed with spiro[2.5]-5,7-dioxa-6,6-dimethyloctane-4,8-dione (IV) by means of NaH in DMF yielding compound (V). The oxidation of (V) with m-chloroperbenzoic acid in CH2Cl2 affords the sulfone (VI), which is submitted to methanolysis with methanol and HCl giving 1-(3,3-dimethoxycarbonylpropyl)-2-methanesulfonyl-5-benzoylpyrrole (VII). The cyclization of (VII) with NaH in DMF yields dimethyl 5-benzoyl-1,2-dihydro-3H-pyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrrole-1,1-dicarboxylate (VIII), which is finally hydrolyzed and decarboxylated with KOH in refluxing methanol. Compound (III) can be oxidized with m-chloroperbenzoic acid as before giving 2-methanesulfonyl-5-benzoylpyrrole (IX), which is then condensed with spiro compound (IV) as before to afford compound (VI), already obtained.

References

  1. Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i “Ketorolac Tromethamine Monograph for Professionals”Drugs.com. American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Retrieved 13 April 2019.
  2. Jump up to:a b c d British national formulary : BNF 76 (76 ed.). Pharmaceutical Press. 2018. pp. 1144, 1302–1303. ISBN 9780857113382.
  3. ^ “DailyMed – ketorolac tromethamine tablet, film coated”dailymed.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
  4. ^ Fischer, Jnos; Ganellin, C. Robin (2006). Analogue-based Drug Discovery. John Wiley & Sons. p. 521. ISBN 9783527607495.
  5. ^ “NADAC as of 2019-02-27”Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
  6. ^ “The Top 300 of 2019”clincalc.com. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
  7. Jump up to:a b c Mallinson, Tom (2017). “A review of ketorolac as a prehospital analgesic”Journal of Paramedic Practice9 (12): 522–526. doi:10.12968/jpar.2017.9.12.522. Retrieved 2 June 2018.
  8. Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i Vallerand, April H. (2017). Davis’s Drug Guide for Nurses. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company. p. 730. ISBN 9780803657052.
  9. Jump up to:a b c d e f g Physician’s Desk Reference 2017. Montvale, New Jersey: PDR, LLC. 2017. pp. S–474–5. ISBN 9781563638381.
  10. ^ “Ketorolac-tromethamine”The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
  11. Jump up to:a b Henry, p. 291.
  12. Jump up to:a b c Martin, Lizabeth D; Jimenez, Nathalia; Lynn, Anne M (2017). “A review of perioperative anesthesia and analgesia for infants: updates and trends to watch”F1000Research6: 120. doi:10.12688/f1000research.10272.1ISSN 2046-1402PMC 5302152PMID 28232869.
  13. Jump up to:a b Schwier, Nicholas; Tran, Nicole (2016). “Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs and Aspirin Therapy for the Treatment of Acute and Recurrent Idiopathic Pericarditis”Pharmaceuticals9 (2): 17. doi:10.3390/ph9020017ISSN 1424-8247PMC 4932535PMID 27023565.
  14. ^ Saenz-de-Viteri, Manuel; Gonzalez-Salinas, Roberto; Guarnieri, Adriano; Guiaro-Navarro, María Concepción (2016). “Patient considerations in cataract surgery – the role of combined therapy using phenylephrine and ketorolac”Patient Preference and Adherence10: 1795–1801. doi:10.2147/PPA.S90468ISSN 1177-889XPMC 5029911PMID 27695298.
  15. ^ Karch, Amy (2017). Focus on nursing pharmacology. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer. p. 272. ISBN 9781496318213.
  16. ^ Lim, Blanche X; Lim, Chris HL; Lim, Dawn K; Evans, Jennifer R; Bunce, Catey; Wormald, Richard; Wormald, Richard (2016). “Prophylactic non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for the prevention of macular oedema after cataract surgery”Cochrane Database Syst Rev11: CD006683. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006683.pub3PMID 27801522.
  17. ^ Sivaprasad, Sobha; Bunce, Catey; Crosby-Nwaobi, Roxanne; Sivaprasad, Sobha (2012). “Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents for treating cystoid macular oedema following cataract surgery”. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2): CD004239. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004239.pub3PMID 22336801.
  18. ^ Wakai A, Lawrenson JG, Lawrenson AL, Wang Y, Brown MD, Quirke M, Ghandour O, McCormick R, Walsh CD, Amayem A, Lang E, Harrison N (2017). “Topical non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for analgesia in traumatic corneal abrasions”. Cochrane Database Syst Rev5: CD009781. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009781.pub2PMID 28516471.
  19. Jump up to:a b Henry, p. 279.
  20. ^ Henry, p. 280.
  21. ^ Lee, I. O.; Seo, Y. (2008). “The Effects of Intrathecal Cyclooxygenase-1, Cyclooxygenase-2, or Nonselective Inhibitors on Pain Behavior and Spinal Fos-Like Immunoreactivity”. Anesthesia & Analgesia106 (3): 972–977, table 977 contents. doi:10.1213/ane.0b013e318163f602PMID 18292448.
  22. ^ MHRA Drug Safety Update October 2007, Volume 1, Issue 3, pp 3-4.
  23. ^ Committee on the Safety of Medicines, Medicines Control Agency: Ketorolac: new restrictions on dose and duration of treatment. Current Problems in Pharmacovigilance:June 1993; Volume 19 (pages 5-8).
  24. ^ “Ketorolac ophthalmic medical facts from”. Drugs.com. Retrieved 2013-10-06.
  25. ^ “Sprix Information from”. Drugs.com. Retrieved 2013-10-06.

Bibliography

External links

Ketorolac
Ketorolac.svg
Ketorolac ball-and-stick.png
Clinical data
Trade names Toradol, Acular, Sprix, others
Synonyms Ketorolac tromethamine
AHFS/Drugs.com Monograph
MedlinePlus a693001
License data
Pregnancy
category
  • AU: C
  • US: C (Risk not ruled out)
Routes of
administration
By mouth, IMIV, eye drops
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability 100% (All routes)
Metabolism Liver
Elimination half-life 3.5 h to 9.2 h, young adults;
4.7 h to 8.6 h, elderly (mean age 72)
Excretion Kidney: 91.4% (mean)
Biliary: 6.1% (mean)
Identifiers
CAS Number
PubChem CID
DrugBank
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
PDB ligand
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
ECHA InfoCard 100.110.314 Edit this at Wikidata
Chemical and physical data
Formula C15H13NO3
Molar mass 255.27 g/mol g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
Chirality Racemic mixture

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